Pyramids of Giza — Myths, Truths, and the Real Work

Stand on the sand at dawn. Three huge stone shapes rise from the ground. These are the pyramids of Giza. They are one of the Seven Wonders of the world, and the only ancient one still standing. People have asked for 4,500 years: who built them, how did they do it, and why?

Who built them and when

The pyramids were made in Egypt’s Old Kingdom, more than 4,500 years ago. Three kings ruled in order: Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Each king built his own pyramid on the Giza plateau, near the Nile River. Khufu’s is the biggest and is called the Great Pyramid. Khafre’s looks tall because it sits on higher ground and keeps a small cap of smooth stone near the top. Menkaure’s is smaller but still huge.

Most scholars place the Great Pyramid around 2560 BC, during Khufu’s reign. So when we say “old,” we mean very old—older than most cities and books on earth.

How big is “big”?

When new, the Great Pyramid stood about 147 meters high (today it is a little shorter because the tip and smooth outer skin are gone). It was the tallest human-made structure on Earth for roughly 3,500–4,000 years. Its mass is about six million tonnes. For a modern sense check, the Burj Khalifa is much taller, but its mass is closer to half a million tonnes. The pyramid is short compared to today’s towers, but it is incredibly heavy.

Most core blocks weigh around 2.5 tonnes each. Special pieces, like the granite blocks in the King’s Chamber, can reach tens of tonnes—some near 80 tonnes. In total, builders used millions of tonnes of limestone, thousands of tonnes of granite, and a lot of mortar to bind joints.

Why build them?

A pyramid was a royal tomb. Egyptians believed life continued after death. The king’s body was mummified and placed in a sarcophagus. Grave goods—food, clothes, furniture, jewelry—were buried to serve him in the next life. The pyramid’s shape points to the sun. Many think it shows the king’s rise to the light. Over time, many tombs were robbed, so we do not see most of those goods today. But the plan was clear: protect the body, feed the spirit, and link the king to the gods.

Where did the stone come from?

Not all stone was the same:

• Giza limestone (local) made the core.
• Tura limestone (across the river) made the bright, smooth outer skin, now almost all gone.
• Aswan granite (far in the south) made the heavy parts inside, like beams over the King’s Chamber.

The Nile was the key highway. In the Old Kingdom, a river branch ran closer to the site than today. Workers moved stone by boat along canals and basins to a harbor near the plateau. We know this not only from ruins and channels but also from a work diary found at Wadi al-Jarf. In it, a team leader named Merer wrote about moving Tura limestone by boat to “Akhet-Khufu” (the Great Pyramid area). It is a rare voice from the time, linking quarry to pyramid.

How did they move blocks on land?

On land, stones went on wooden sledges. Dragging a sledge over dry sand is hard. The sand piles up in front. Ancient workers learned a simple trick: wet the sand ahead of the runners. With the right amount of water, the sand gets firm, and the sledge slides much easier. Teams pulled with hemp ropes while a water bearer walked ahead to keep a narrow strip damp.

To gain height, builders used ramps. Some may have been long and straight; others likely turned in switchbacks; short ramps could be moved and rebuilt as the pyramid rose. Scholars still debate the exact ramp plan, but everyone agrees that ramps were part of the job.

No wheels or iron tools here: this is the copper, wood, and stone era. You see copper chisels, wood mallets, wooden levers, and dolerite pounders (hard stones) in quarries. Simple tools, smart methods.

How did they make it so precise?

The first course at the base had to be flat and square. Teams used knotted cords, stakes, and water-filled channels to check straight lines and level. They kept the same slope on each side, checked with plumb lines and simple wooden angle gauges. If a block sat a bit high, a mason shaved a thin slice with a copper chisel. If a block sat a bit low, a wooden shim or crib block helped set it flush. Levers did the last small lifts and nudges. Many small checks, done again and again, made the big shape true.

What is inside?

The Great Pyramid is not solid. A descending passage runs down into the bedrock. An ascending passage climbs to the Grand Gallery, a long, high corridor with corbelled walls. The Queen’s Chamber sits on the center line. The King’s Chamber is higher and built from huge granite blocks. Above it, a stack of relieving chambers spreads weight so the roof will not crack. There is also an empty granite coffer in the King’s Chamber. We do not know its full story, but it shows the care and strength used in that room.

Modern scans have found more. In 2017 and later, teams used cosmic-ray muons to peek inside. They reported a large hidden void above the Grand Gallery and a small corridor-like space near the north face. We still do not know the purpose of these spaces. They may be part of construction tricks, or to manage weight. They remain quiet rooms for now.

Who did the work?

Walk south from the pyramids and you reach Heit el-Ghurab, the workers’ city. Here archaeologists found houses, bakeries, workshops, admin rooms, and cemeteries. There is clear evidence of rations (bread and beer), tool care, and even medical treatment. This does not look like a prison camp.

Old stories said the pyramids were built by slaves under whips. The site tells another tale. The work looks like organized crews serving the king as part of the state. Many estimates suggest 20,000–30,000 workers during peak periods, working in teams and in shifts, well supplied by farms along the Nile. It was hard work, yes, but planned, paid in kind, and respected. Some workers were even buried with honor near their job.

What about the Sphinx and the temples?

Each pyramid had a valley temple near the river. A causeway climbed up to a mortuary temple by the pyramid. Priests made offerings for the king’s spirit. This was a sacred path, from river to temple to tomb.

Near the pyramids sits the Great Sphinx: a lion body with a human face, looking east. It stands near Khafre’s causeway like a guard. Over time, sand buried it many times. People dug it out again and again. The Sphinx adds to Giza’s power and mystery.

Myths vs truths

• “Aliens built it.” No. We have the quarries, the tools, the ramp traces, the harbor works, the workers’ city, and a work diary from the time. The human story fits the evidence.
• “Too perfect for people.” The work is very good, but it is human. Look close and you see tool marks, tiny shims, and small fixes.
• “Curses.” Scary stories make good headlines. Real risks are old air, dust, and loose stone in closed spaces. No magic needed.
• “Visible from space.” Astronauts can photograph them with cameras, but the phrase makes it sound easy with the naked eye. Better to say: they are huge, and modern images from orbit show them well.

What the stones say?

The pyramids teach a plain lesson. Great work is not one big trick. It is many small steps, done well and done again: draw the line; set the base; choose the right stone; use the river; wet the sand; climb the ramp; check the corner; lift with a lever. Faith and math walked side by side. A planned city fed the hands that built. A work leader’s papyrus diary crossed 45 centuries to tell us how. Some secrets remain—hidden rooms, lost ramp paths—but the biggest mystery is solved. These giants were built by people, not aliens or magic: by hands and minds, by leaders and crews, with hope, duty, and careful work. At sunrise the desert turns gold, and the three pyramids keep their long, steady watch.

References & Sources:

• Lehner, Mark. The Complete Pyramids: Solving the Ancient Mysteries. Thames & Hudson, 1997.
• Lehner, Mark & Hawass, Zahi (eds.). Giza and the Pyramids: The Definitive History. University of Chicago Press, 2017.
• Tallet, Pierre. The Red Sea Scrolls: How Ancient Papyri Reveal the Secrets of the Pyramids. Thames & Hudson, 2022.
• Tallet, Pierre & Marouard, Gregory. “The Wadi el-Jarf Papyri and the Logistics of Khufu’s Reign.” In: Egyptian Archaeology (EA), 2014.
• Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Great Pyramid of Giza.” Latest editorial revision.
• Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Pyramids of Giza.” Latest editorial revision.
• ScanPyramids Team (Mehdi Tayoubi, Kunihiro Morishima, et al.). “Discovery of a Large Void in Khufu’s Pyramid by Muon Radiography.” Nature, 2017.
• ScanPyramids / Morishima, K. et al. “Characterization of a North-Face Corridor in the Great Pyramid.” Nature Communications, 2023.
• Bonn, Daniel et al. “Sliding Friction on Wet and Dry Sand (Implications for Sledge Hauling).” Physical Review Letters, 2014.
• AERA — Ancient Egypt Research Associates (Mark Lehner). Field reports on Heit el-Ghurab (“Workers’ City”), rations, bakeries, and labor organization; annual reports and site monographs.
• PNAS Study (Hader Sheisha, Eman Ghoneim, et al.). “Nile Waterscapes Facilitated the Construction of the Giza Pyramids (Khufu Branch).” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 2022.
• Shaw, Ian (ed.). The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2000.
• Verner, Miroslav. The Pyramids: The Mystery, Culture, and Science of Egypt’s Great Monuments. Grove Press, 2001.
• Arnold, Dieter. Building in Egypt: Pharaonic Stone Masonry. Oxford University Press, 1991.
• Baines, John & Málek, Jaromír. Atlas of Ancient Egypt. Facts On File, 1980.
• National Geographic Society. Features on Giza logistics, the Diary of Merer, and stone transport; various issues and specials (2013–2023).
• PBS NOVA (interviews and features with Mark Lehner & Zahi Hawass). Estimates for workforce (≈20,000–30,000), rations, and site logistics.
• Supreme Council of Antiquities (Egypt). Press briefings and site bulletins on Giza plateau works and ScanPyramids findings (2017–2023).
• Cole, J.H. “Determination of the Exact Size and Orientation of the Great Pyramid.” Survey of Egypt, 1925 (classic base-and-orientation survey).
• Petrie, W.M. Flinders. The Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh. 2nd ed., 1883/1909 (foundational measurements and observations).